Elephant Social Systems: What Do We Know and How Have Molecular Tools Helped?

Abstract

We review studies of the social systems of the living elephants—the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), African savannah elephant (Loxodonta africana), and African forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis). Social systems include social organisation, the way relationships are structured, and the mating system; we describe each of these in turn, drawing from long-term observational studies and studies based on indirect methods in more inaccessible populations. Male and female elephants exhibit different adult lifestyles: females live in fssion–fusion societies, whereas males disperse from their natal groups and subsequently associate with other males and females only temporarily. Associations and dominance relationships among females and among males may be complex and structured by factors such as genetic relatedness and relative ages. Elephants are polygynous and males compete amongst themselves for access to females. The outcome of such competition may be shaped by musth (a rut-like phenomenon) and age. Molecular markers have been used to understand aspects of social structure and mating system in some populations; we point to these studies and discuss further avenues of research. We also comment on how anthropogenic activities affect social systems, and the relevance of studying social systems in the context of conservation.